Introduction: The Living Legacy of Sanatana Dharma
Hinduism, often referred to as Sanatana Dharma (“eternal way” or “eternal law”), stands as humanity’s oldest continuously practiced spiritual tradition, with roots extending over 5,000 years into antiquity. Unlike religions founded by a single prophet or bound by a unified doctrine, Hinduism represents an intricate tapestry of spiritual pathways, philosophical frameworks, cultural expressions, and metaphysical inquiries that have evolved organically through millennia. This remarkable tradition has flourished through ceaseless dialogue, adaptation, and synthesis—embracing paradox rather than avoiding it.
What distinguishes Hinduism is its extraordinary capacity to contain multitudes: it encompasses polytheistic worship alongside sophisticated monistic philosophy; elaborate rituals alongside silent meditation; devotional mysticism alongside logical analysis. This spiritual ecosystem represents humanity’s longest continuous exploration of consciousness, reality, and transcendence. This examination will traverse the expansive landscape of Hindu thought and practice, illuminating its historical development, philosophical richness, spiritual methodologies, and its profound contributions to global consciousness in both ancient and contemporary contexts.
Historical Origins: The Rivers of Antiquity
The Indus-Sarasvati Civilization: Cradle of Early Spirituality
The earliest proto-Hindu practices emerged from the sophisticated Indus-Sarasvati Civilization (circa 3300-1300 BCE), which flourished along the riverine plains of what is now Pakistan and northwestern India. Archaeological evidence from sites like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa reveals a culture deeply invested in ritual practice and symbolic expression. The discovery of seals depicting figures in yogic postures, proto-Shiva motifs, and symbols resembling later Hindu iconography suggests spiritual continuity across millennia.
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro—a meticulous brick structure featuring a large pool with staircases—indicates ritual purification practices that presage later Hindu conceptions of sacred bathing. Terracotta figurines resembling the later Hindu goddess traditions hint at an early form of feminine divine worship. These archaeological findings provide tangible connections between India’s earliest urban civilization and later Hindu practices, demonstrating remarkable cultural continuity despite significant societal transformations.
The Vedic Synthesis: Cosmic Order Through Sacred Sound
The migration and settlement of Indo-Aryan peoples around 1500 BCE ushered in the Vedic period, characterized by the composition of India’s oldest sacred texts. The four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—represent vast collections of hymns, ritual instructions, melodies, and incantations that formed the foundation of early Hindu thought. The Rigveda alone contains 1,028 hymns and over 10,000 verses, preserving one of humanity’s oldest living religious traditions through an extraordinary feat of oral transmission before being committed to writing.
The Vedic worldview centered on an intricately conceived cosmic order (rita) maintained through precise ritual actions. The sophisticated fire rituals (yajnas) performed by specialized priests (brahmins) were understood as cosmic technologies that sustained the harmony between human, natural, and divine realms. The Vedic pantheon featured luminous deities (devas) including Agni (sacrificial fire), Soma (sacred elixir), Surya (the sun), and Ushas (dawn)—each representing both natural and metaphysical principles.
The sacred syllable “Om” (also written as AUM) emerged during this period as the primordial sound vibration—a sonic representation of the cosmos itself. This single syllable contains profound metaphysical symbolism: its three phonetic components (a-u-m) representing creation, preservation, and dissolution; waking, dreaming, and deep sleep states; and the three major gods of later Hinduism—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
From Ritual to Realization: The Upanishadic Revolution
Between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, a profound philosophical transformation occurred within Hinduism, documented in the mystical texts known as the Upanishads. These dialogues between teachers and students represent a radical interiorization of Vedic wisdom—redirecting focus from external ritual to internal realization. The fundamental insight of the Upanishads centers on the ultimate identity between Atman (individual consciousness) and Brahman (cosmic consciousness)—expressed in four Mahavakyas (great pronouncements):
- “Prajnanam Brahma” (Consciousness is Brahman) – Aitareya Upanishad.
- “Aham Brahmasmi” (I am Brahman) – Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
- “Tat Tvam Asi” (That thou art) – Chandogya Upanishad.
- “Ayam Atma Brahma” (This Self is Brahman) – Mandukya Upanishad.
This revolutionary assertion fundamentally transformed Hindu spirituality, establishing inner contemplation and direct realization as the highest spiritual goals. The Upanishads introduced sophisticated analyses of consciousness states, epistemological frameworks, and metaphysical formulations that would later blossom into the six orthodox philosophical schools (darshanas).
The Epic and Puranic Synthesis: Narrative Theology
The post-Vedic period witnessed the composition of India’s great epics—the Mahabharata (containing the Bhagavad Gita) and the Ramayana—which embedded profound philosophical teachings within compelling narratives accessible to all social classes. These works, alongside the later Puranas (ancient narratives), facilitated Hinduism’s evolution from abstract philosophical discourse into rich devotional traditions centered on deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and the Divine Mother in her various forms.
The Bhagavad Gita, situated within the Mahabharata, represents a pivotal theological synthesis, harmonizing diverse spiritual paths into an integrated system. Through the dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and Lord Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu), the text articulates the paths of action (karma yoga), knowledge (jnana yoga), and devotion (bhakti yoga) as complementary approaches to liberation. Krishna’s profound teaching—”Established in yoga, perform actions abandoning attachment” (Gita 2:48)—offers a revolutionary middle path reconciling worldly engagement with spiritual transcendence.
The Philosophical Foundations: The Six Darshanas and Beyond
Hindu philosophy evolved through systematic analysis and debate, crystallizing into six orthodox schools (astika darshanas) that accept Vedic authority while offering diverse interpretations:
- Nyaya: Founded by Gautama, this school developed sophisticated logical and epistemological systems for determining valid knowledge (pramana). Its analytical methodology, including the five-part syllogism, provided critical thinking tools for all Indian philosophical traditions.
- Vaisheshika: Established by Kanada, this atomistic philosophy categorized reality into six (later seven) fundamental categories including substances, qualities, actions, and universals. Its sophisticated physics anticipated modern atomic theory by millennia, proposing that atoms (paramanu) combine to form all material substances.
- Samkhya: Attributed to sage Kapila, this dualistic system differentiates between eternal consciousness (purusha) and primordial matter (prakriti). It outlines a sophisticated evolutionary cosmology where prakriti manifests through 24 principles (tattvas) from subtle to gross elements.
- Yoga: Codified by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras, this practical system provides an eight-limbed path (ashtanga) for controlling mental fluctuations and achieving samadhi (absorption). Beyond physical postures (asanas), it encompasses ethical disciplines, breath control, sensory withdrawal, concentration, and meditative states.
- Mimamsa: Focused on Vedic ritual exegesis, this school developed hermeneutical principles for textual interpretation and emphasized dharmic action (karma) as the means to prosperity (artha) and happiness (kama).
- Vedanta: The culmination of Hindu philosophy, this school focuses on realizing the ultimate truth revealed in the Upanishads. It diversified into influential sub-schools:
- Advaita (non-dualism): Systematized by Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE), this tradition asserts the absolute oneness of Brahman and Atman, viewing the phenomenal world as a conditional appearance (maya).
- Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism): Developed by Ramanuja (11th century CE), this school recognizes three ultimate realities—individual souls (chit), matter (achit), and God (Ishvara)—with the latter pervading and controlling the former two.
- Dvaita (dualism): Propounded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE), this tradition emphasizes the eternal distinction between God, souls, and matter, highlighting devotional surrender.
- Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism): Formulated by Nimbarka, this approach reconciles aspects of both unity and difference.
- Achintya Bhedabheda (inconceivable difference and non-difference): Developed by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and his followers, this sophisticated philosophy transcends logical categorization.
Beyond these orthodox schools, influential heterodox traditions emerged from the same intellectual milieu, including Buddhism, Jainism, and the materialist Charvaka school. These traditions entered into productive philosophical dialogue with Hindu schools, challenging assumptions and stimulating further refinement of concepts.
Core Metaphysical Concepts: The Architecture of Hindu Thought
Brahman: The Absolute Reality
At Hinduism’s metaphysical core lies Brahman—the ultimate reality that transcends yet encompasses all existence. The Taittiriya Upanishad describes Brahman as “satyam jnanam anantam brahma” (truth, knowledge, infinity). This principle defies conceptual categorization, being simultaneously with form (saguna) and without form (nirguna), immanent and transcendent.
The Upanishads characterize Brahman through both positive assertions (neti neti—”not this, not this”) and negative theology (neti neti—”not this, not this”). This paradoxical approach recognizes that ultimate reality transcends linguistic and conceptual frameworks. The Mandukya Upanishad describes Brahman as “the fourth” (turiya)—beyond waking, dreaming, and deep sleep states—accessible only through direct realization.
Atman: The Self Beyond Ego
Hindu philosophy distinguishes between the empirical self (ahamkara or ego-identity) and the transcendental Self (Atman). While ahamkara represents the limited sense of “I” associated with body, personality, and social roles, Atman refers to pure consciousness that illumines all mental states without being limited by them.
The Katha Upanishad employs the metaphor of a chariot to illustrate this distinction: the body is the chariot, the intellect (buddhi) the charioteer, the mind (manas) the reins, the senses (indriyas) the horses, and Atman the passenger—distinct from yet witnessing the entire apparatus. The spiritual journey involves recognizing oneself as this witnessing consciousness rather than identifying with the psychophysical complex.
Samsara and Maya: The Wheel of Becoming
Hindu cosmology envisions existence as cyclical rather than linear, encompassing vast time scales measured in billions of years (kalpas). Individual souls cycle through repeated births and deaths (samsara) based on their accumulated karma. This process occurs within maya—often mistranslated as “illusion” but more accurately understood as “that which measures” or the principle of manifestation that gives rise to multiplicity from unity.
Maya does not imply the world lacks reality but rather that conventional perception misconstrues its nature. Like a person mistaking a rope for a snake in dim light, humans superimpose false attributes onto reality through ignorance (avidya). The goal is not to escape reality but to perceive it correctly—recognizing its underlying unity despite apparent diversity.
Dharma: Cosmic and Individual Order
Dharma represents a multifaceted concept encompassing cosmic order, social ethics, and individual duty. At the universal level, rita (cosmic harmony) manifests as dharma in human society—the principles that maintain social and personal well-being. The Mahabharata defines dharma through its fourfold foundation: scriptural authority, exemplary conduct, conscience, and the satisfaction derived from virtuous living.
Hindu tradition recognizes specific dharmic obligations based on four social functions (varna) and four life stages (ashrama). This varnashrama dharma system was designed as a framework for progressive spiritual development rather than rigid social stratification. Beyond these contextual duties lies sanatana dharma—the eternal principles that transcend cultural and historical circumstances.
Spiritual Disciplines: Pathways to Liberation
The Four Yogas: Integrated Approaches to Self-Realization
Hinduism recognizes multiple valid pathways to spiritual fulfillment, accommodating diverse temperaments and capacities:
- Jnana Yoga (the path of knowledge): For the intellectually inclined, this approach involves discriminative wisdom (viveka) to distinguish between the eternal and the ephemeral. The aspirant progresses through systematic analysis (e.g., the Vedantic method of “neti neti”), contemplation of great statements (mahavakyas), and direct intuition (aparoksha anubhuti). The Mundaka Upanishad describes this path: “The knot of the heart is loosened, all doubts vanish, and all karma is exhausted when That is seen—the higher and the lower.”
- Bhakti Yoga (the path of devotion): Centered on loving relationship with the divine, this approach cultivates emotional purification through nine forms of devotion (navavidha bhakti): listening to divine stories, singing divine names, remembering divine qualities, service, ritual worship, prostration, servitude, friendship, and complete surrender. The Narada Bhakti Sutras state: “Bhakti is of the nature of supreme love toward God.”
- Karma Yoga (the path of action): This discipline transforms ordinary activity into spiritual practice through three principles: performing duties without attachment to results, dedicating actions to the divine, and maintaining equanimity in success and failure. The Bhagavad Gita teaches: “Your right is to work only, but never to the fruits thereof. Let not the fruits of action be your motive, nor let your attachment be to inaction.”
- Raja Yoga (the royal path): Systematized in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, this comprehensive approach encompasses ethical disciplines (yama and niyama), postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), sensory withdrawal (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana), and absorption (samadhi). The ultimate goal is described as “chitta-vritti-nirodha”—the cessation of mental fluctuations, revealing pure consciousness.
These paths are not mutually exclusive but complement each other, with most spiritual practitioners engaging multiple approaches simultaneously or sequentially.
Rituals and Sacraments: Sacred Technologies
Hindu ritual practice spans from simple daily observances to elaborate temple ceremonies, each designed as a symbolic technology for connecting with sacred dimensions of existence. The concept of samskara (refinement) guides sixteen major life-cycle rituals from conception to cremation, marking transformative life passages with sacred significance.
Daily worship (puja) transforms ordinary spaces into sacred environments through systematic invocation of divine presence using mantras (sacred sounds), mudras (ritual gestures), and symbolic offerings. The sensory elements of ritual—incense, flowers, lights, food offerings—engage the practitioner holistically, creating an immersive experience of the sacred within everyday life.
Temple worship (devapuja) centers on the murti (consecrated image) understood not as mere representation but as a living embodiment of divinity. The elaborate sequence of temple rituals mirrors the hospitality offered to an honored guest: awakening, bathing, dressing, feeding, entertaining, and putting to rest—transforming abstract theological concepts into intimate relationship.
Pilgrimage: Geography as Sacred Text
India’s landscape itself functions as a spiritual text within Hinduism, with countless pilgrimage sites (tirthas) corresponding to cosmic, mythic, and historical dimensions of the tradition. Major sacred centers include:
- Varanasi (Kashi): Considered Shiva’s eternal city, where death brings liberation.
- Prayagraj (Allahabad): Where three sacred rivers converge, hosting the massive Kumbh Mela gathering every twelve years.
- Rameshwaram: Marking Lord Rama’s crossing point to Lanka, featuring elaborate water purification tanks.
- Tirupati: Home to Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu), among the world’s most visited religious sites.
- Amarnath Cave: Housing a naturally formed ice lingam representing Shiva.
The concept of circumambulation extends to massive geographical circuits like the Chardham Yatra (covering India’s four directions) and Narmada Parikrama (circumambulating an entire river). These sacred journeys transform external geography into interior spiritual landscape, with physical movement mirroring inner transformation.
Divine Manifestations: Gods, Goddesses, and Beyond
The Trinity: Cosmic Functions Personified
The Hindu conception of divinity encompasses both unified ultimate reality (Brahman) and its diverse expressions through gods and goddesses who embody cosmic functions:
- Brahma – The Creator: Represents the generative principle, depicted with four heads (symbolizing the Vedas) and riding a swan (discernment). Though foundational to Hindu cosmology, Brahma has relatively few dedicated temples, reflecting the philosophical notion that creation, while necessary, is ultimately transcended in spiritual realization.
- Vishnu – The Preserver: Embodies cosmic sustenance and dharmic order, reclining on the cosmic serpent Shesha in the primordial ocean. Vishnu’s ten major incarnations (dashavatara) represent divine intervention throughout cosmic history, including Rama (ideal ruler), Krishna (divine teacher), and Buddha (spiritual reformer). His attributes include the discus (sudarshana chakra), conch (panchajanya), mace (kaumodaki), and lotus (padma).
- Shiva – The Transformer: Represents both destruction and regeneration, existing beyond conventional categories. As Nataraja (Lord of Dance), Shiva performs the cosmic dance of creation and dissolution within a circle of flames. As Ardhanarishvara, Shiva embodies divine integration of masculine and feminine principles. As Dakshinamurti, Shiva personifies supreme wisdom teaching through silence.
The Divine Feminine: Shakti in Her Myriad Forms
The goddess traditions (Shaktism) recognize feminine divinity as the dynamic power (shakti) animating the cosmos. Major goddess forms include:
- Parvati: Shiva’s consort representing auspicious power, ideal companionship, and maternal love.
- Durga: The warrior goddess who defeats the buffalo demon, symbolizing triumph over ego.
- Kali: Time personified, destroying illusion and bestowing liberation through her fierce compassion.
- Lakshmi: Goddess of prosperity, abundance, and auspiciousness associated with Vishnu.
- Saraswati: Goddess of knowledge, arts, music, and speech, depicted with a veena (stringed instrument).
The sophisticated philosophical system of Sri Vidya synthesizes these diverse feminine manifestations into an integrated metaphysical framework centered on Sri Chakra—a geometric representation of cosmic evolution from unity to multiplicity and back.
Beyond Personification: Abstract and Elemental Divinity
Hindu conceptions of divinity extend beyond anthropomorphic representations to include abstract principles and natural elements:
- Lingam and Yoni: Non-figurative representations of divine masculine and feminine principles.
- Sacred Rivers: Especially the Ganges (Ganga), personified as goddess yet worshipped in flowing form.
- Mountains: Particularly the Himalayas, understood as Shiva’s abode.
- Sacred Plants: Including tulsi (holy basil) associated with Vishnu and bel leaves with Shiva.
- Navagrahas: The nine celestial influences including planets, sun, and moon.
This multilevel approach allows divinity to be approached through conceptual, visual, elemental, and transcendent modalities, accommodating diverse spiritual capacities and preferences.
Philosophical Intersections: Hindu Thought in Global Context
Eastern Philosophical Dialogues
Hindu philosophy entered into productive dialogue with numerous Eastern traditions, both influencing and being influenced by them:
- Buddhism: Emerging from the same spiritual milieu, Buddhism’s emphasis on meditation, impermanence (anitya), and non-self (anatman) profoundly shaped Hindu thought. The Buddhist critiques prompted Hindu philosophers to refine their conceptions of self, leading to sophisticated defenses of Atman while incorporating Buddhist meditative techniques.
- Jainism: The Jain emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) and multiple perspectives (anekantavada) influenced Hindu ethical frameworks and epistemological approaches. The Jain doctrine of syadvada (conditional predication) finds parallels in later Advaita discussions of provisional truth levels.
- Taoism: Though direct historical contact is limited, striking parallels exist between Taoist conceptions of the Tao (unnameable ultimate principle) and Hindu articulations of Brahman. Both traditions emphasize flowing with natural principles rather than imposing artificial structures.
Western Philosophical Resonances
Hindu thought has engaged with Western philosophical traditions through both historical encounters and conceptual parallels:
- Neoplatonism: Plotinus’s conception of “The One” beyond being and non-being bears striking resemblance to Advaita conceptions of Brahman. Both traditions emphasize contemplative ascent through increasingly subtle levels of reality toward ineffable unity.
- Transcendentalism: Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau drew explicit inspiration from Upanishadic thought, particularly the concepts of immanent divinity and direct spiritual intuition. Emerson’s “Over-Soul” directly parallels Upanishadic conceptions of universal consciousness.
- Process Philosophy: Alfred North Whitehead’s emphasis on reality as process rather than static substance resonates with Hindu conceptions of the manifest world as continuous becoming (samsara) while still recognizing an unchanging foundation (Brahman).
- Existentialism: While differing in ultimate conclusions, existentialist concerns with authenticity, meaning, and freedom find parallels in Hindu discussions of svadharma (individual duty) and moksha (liberation).
- Transpersonal Psychology: Carl Jung’s explorations of archetypes and the collective unconscious drew explicitly on Hindu conceptions of consciousness, with Jung recognizing mandalas and other symbolic expressions as universal patterns of psychospiritual integration.
Contemporary Relevance: Ancient Wisdom in Modern Times
Global Diffusion and Adaptation
Hinduism has transcended geographical boundaries to become a global spiritual influence, adapting to new cultural contexts while preserving core insights:
The global dissemination of yoga represents one of the most successful cross-cultural transmissions in history, evolving from an integral spiritual discipline to diverse forms including hatha yoga (physical practice), kundalini yoga (energy awakening), and numerous contemporary adaptations. Over 300 million practitioners worldwide now engage with these practices.
Meditation techniques derived from Hindu traditions have been adopted within healthcare, education, and corporate settings, supported by thousands of scientific studies demonstrating their effectiveness for stress reduction, cognitive enhancement, and emotional regulation. The secularized mindfulness movement draws significantly from dhyana practices first articulated in Hindu texts.
Organizations including the Ramakrishna Mission, ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness), and numerous yoga and Vedanta centers have established global networks providing spiritual instruction adapted to contemporary contexts while maintaining philosophical integrity.
Scientific Interfaces and Contributions
Hindu philosophical frameworks offer unique perspectives on contemporary scientific questions:
- Consciousness Studies: The Hindu analysis of consciousness as fundamental rather than emergent provides alternative frameworks for the “hard problem” of consciousness. The distinction between Atman (pure consciousness) and its contents offers sophisticated phenomenological methodologies complementing neuroscientific approaches.
- Quantum Physics: Physicist Erwin Schrödinger explicitly acknowledged the influence of Vedantic non-dualism on his scientific thinking. The Upanishadic insight that apparent multiplicity arises from underlying unity provides conceptual models for understanding quantum entanglement and field theories.
- Systems Theory: Hindu cosmological models featuring nested hierarchies of existence (tattvas) anticipate aspects of complex systems theory, presenting sophisticated frameworks for understanding emergence and interdependence across different reality levels.
- Cognitive Science: Hindu epistemological systems recognize multiple valid knowledge sources (pramanas) beyond sensory perception and inference, including yogic direct perception (pratyaksha) and testimony (shabda), potentially expanding the methodological toolkit of consciousness research.
Environmental Ethics and Sustainability
Hindu conceptions of nature as sacred offer profound resources for contemporary environmental challenges:
The principle of ahimsa (non-harming) extends ethical consideration to all living beings, providing philosophical foundations for environmental ethics. Traditional reverence for sacred rivers, mountains, and forests embeds conservation values within religious practice rather than treating them as separate domains.
Concepts like rita (cosmic order) and interconnectedness (bandhu) between macrocosm and microcosm provide metaphysical frameworks for understanding ecological relationships. The Ishavasya Upanishad teaches that the universe is “inhabited by the Divine” and should be enjoyed without exploitation—a profound basis for sustainable relationship with natural systems.
Modern environmental movements in India, including the Chipko (“tree-hugging”) movement and efforts to restore the Ganges River, explicitly draw on Hindu values while addressing contemporary ecological challenges. Figures like Vandana Shiva integrate traditional Hindu concepts of interdependence with scientific analysis to advocate for biodiversity conservation and environmental justice.
Conclusion: The Living Tradition
Hinduism remains among humanity’s most vital and adaptive spiritual traditions—a living laboratory of consciousness exploration spanning millennia. Its philosophical depth, ritual richness, and psychological sophistication continue to offer profound resources for addressing perennial human questions and contemporary challenges alike.
The Hindu tradition’s remarkable capacity to embrace apparent contradictions—affirming both the one and the many, transcendence and immanence, form and formlessness—provides a model of integrative thinking increasingly relevant in our pluralistic world. Its recognition that diverse temperaments require diverse spiritual approaches offers a template for religious inclusivity while maintaining philosophical coherence.
As humanity navigates unprecedented global challenges requiring both technological innovation and wisdom traditions, Hinduism’s time-tested insights into consciousness, ethics, and harmonious living represent an invaluable resource. The ancient rishis’ profound inquiry into the nature of reality continues to resonate across cultural and temporal boundaries, inviting each generation to discover anew the eternal questions at the heart of human existence.
In the evocative words of the Katha Upanishad: “That which is here is there; that which is there is here. Whoever sees difference here goes from death to death.” This insight into underlying unity amid apparent diversity remains Hinduism’s enduring gift to world spiritual heritage—a reminder that beneath the surface of our diverse experiences flows the single current of universal consciousness.
The Series: Major Eastern Philosophies
1. Taoism: A Journey Through Time, Philosophy, and Spirituality
2. Buddhism: Exploring Its Roots, Teachings, and Worldwide Impact
3. Confucianism: Historical Background, Core Ideas, and Influence Today
4. Shinto: From Ancient Beginnings to Modern-Day Importance
5. Muism: Historical Significance and Modern Perspectives
6. Hinduism: A Rich and Varied Philosophical and Spiritual Tradition
7. Jainism: Historical Evolution and Spiritual Relevance
8. Zoroastrianism: The Transition From Polytheism to Monotheism
9. Tenrikyo: A Modern Japanese Philosophical and Spiritual Movement
10. Sikhism: An Alternative Interpretation of Islam and Hinduism
ARE YOU A TRUE HINDU?
Answer all the questions and choose one response for each of them.
1. What is the ultimate goal of life according to Hindu philosophy?
2. Which text is considered a dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra?
3. In Hindu cosmology, what are the three primary functions represented by Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva?
4. What does ‘karma’ refer to in Hindu belief?
5. Which path focuses on devotion to a personal deity as a means to achieve spiritual goals?
6. What does ‘atman’ signify in Hindu teachings?
The correct answers are the ones corresponding to the letter A. Count the number of times you chose answer A and check your profile below.
0: Hinduism is not your thing!
1-2: You are a quite misinformed Hindu
3-4: You are an evolving Hindu
5-6: You are a true expert on Hinduism!
